RU 
EN Vera Podkovyrova
The Library of the Russian Academy of Science, Russia
Iconography of several cycles of miniatures in Russian Apocalypse manuscripts, formed by the end of the 16th century, is based primarily on Russian, then on Western European and only in general terms on Byzantine and post-Byzantine sources. Western models for the Russian 17th century mural cycles of Apocalypse are widely known and described in literature (primarily engravings of the Piscator’s Bible and related publications). However F. I. Buslaev already observed that some compositions in a certain cycle of Russian miniatures had been replaced by similar or parallel scenes from engravings of the “September” Luther Bible. Furthermore, the Western 16th century engraved editions influenced some details of Russian Apocalypse iconography (Yu. A. Gribov, G. P. Chinyakova). The paper will review both trends of Western influence. Miniatures from the earliest extant Russian illustrated Apocalypse (mid.-16th century) based on Russian murals and icons will serve as the “Russian canon”. In comparison with it, the “foreign” layers in later cycles of miniatures to Revelation can be clearly identified, allowing us to examine formation of such cycles through the prism of Western European book engraving.
Irina Kulakova
Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia
The paper examines one of the revered in Orthodoxy types of icons of the Virgin — the Virgin of Passion. The theme of the Arma Christi originates from Old Rus’ period (the reverse side of the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir). Probably in the 12th–13th centuries the theme of veneration of the Virgin was complemented with the theme of the Passion of Christ — figures of worshipping angels with Instruments of the Passion. This iconographic variant was actualized in the Italo-Cretan tradition of the 15th century, primarily in the works of Andreas Ritzos. I consider a legend (recorded in some late sources) about one of the copies of the Virgin of the Passion icon, which remained intact in the Moscow fire of 1547, saving one of the houses of the Kitay-gorod, and by the tsar’s command was put in the iconostasis of the Church of the Conception of St. Anna. Changes of the cultural context led to the spread of the subject.
Discovery of the revered replica of the icon resulted in well-known legend about the miraculous image from Nizhny Novgorod transfered to Moscow in 1641. After that a church was built and Strastnoy (Virgin of the Passion) monastery was founded (1654). In Western European tradition the cycles of Christ’s Passion and symbolism of the Instruments of the Passion were by that time very popular. The actualization of the Passion scenes in the middle — second half of the 17th century in Moscow is absolutely understandable. It is in tune with the basic principles of Baroque art, which penetrates into Russia with Ukrainian and Belarusian book culture. The Instruments of the Passion of Christ in different iconographic versions become usual elements of different objects (for example, metal crosses), in fine art (portrait engravings), and literary works. The theme of stoic resistance to the trials and tribulations becomes urgent, being associated with complex cultural environment of Modern Time.
Darya Naydenova
Saint Petersburg State University, Russia
Saint Christopher was considered in the West as one of the most popular saints, being included in the group of “the Fourteen Holy Helpers” — the defenders from plague epidemics. According to a Greek belief people who saw St. Christopher that day should not be afraid of a contagious disease and sudden death. A deliberately exaggerated image of the Saint and the Christ child on his shoulder was placed not only in the area of the temple, but also on its outer walls, city gates, so that everyone could see his saving face even from a distance and thus avoid trouble.
The image of St. Christopher appeared in Russia only in the middle of the 16th century and became widespread in the monumental and icon painting. He was portrayed in a typical anthropomorphic form as well as in an unusual form with a dog’s or, sometimes, horse’s head. Like in the West, in Russia he was revered as a healer and deliverer from disease and pestilence; however, in some regions like in the Russian North and the Perm land he acquired different functions inherent in the Russian traditions.
This report examines the main iconographic types of St. Christopher and especially the features of his veneration in some Russian regions in the middle of the 16th— early 18th centuries. These issues have been addressed in many publications by both Russian and Western researchers but the image of St. Christopher in the ancient Russian art still needs to be comprehensively studied and symbolically interpreted.
Andrey Gamlitskiy
Research Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts of the Russian Academy of Arts, Russia
Nobody doubts the important role of the use of western prints as examples for Russian art of the 17th century. As a rule they were albums of engravings on biblical themes (ouvrages), published in the end of the 16th–17th centuries in the Netherlands and Germany.
The report focuses on the little known issue of place and role of the albums on biblical themes in Western culture and arts. It was found out that the birth of the future samples of Russian art was associated with intense religious struggle in Europe in the second half of the 16th century. The initiators of the publications were free-religious dissidents (the Familists, the Remonstrants, the Mennonits), orthodox Calvinists, and Jesuits, which is directly reflected in the figurative and plastic language of illustrations.
These publications were actively used as models not only in Western Europe but also in Asia. Stained glasses, canvases and monumental paintings in churches of England, France, Germany, reliefs of Dutch houses, items of mass goods and even Chinese ink painting and engraving were based on these illustrations.
The comparison shows that the English post-medieval masters of the 16th century, Russian icon painters, and Chinese artists, reproducing the patterns from the newly discovered artistic system, used the same principles. They “converted” them into their own artistic system, including familiar realia.
Thus the facts collected by the author can significantly correct and even completely revise established views in Russian art criticism on Western engraved patterns as some minor monuments. They also allow to get some new insight into the process of dealing with the Western artistic experience in the 17th century Russia.
Maria Savelieva
Moscow Center of Museum Development, Russia
This work is intended to help to get a better insight into content of the famous Russian ABC-book by comparing it with its predecessors from Western Europe: decorated alphabets of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance which contain either figural (i.e. composed of figures) or historiated letters. Some of these alphabets (as, for example, the alphabet of Mary of Burgundy) included texts for each letter, helping, without doubt, to have a more clear understanding of the content and the purpose of the work. Others (as is the case of the alphabet from Giovannino dei Grassi’s sketchbook or engraved letters of Master E. S.) could dispense with any words.
Karion Istomin’s ABC-book is unique because it included not only figural letters and rhymed poetic texts, but also multiple depictions of objects having the same first letter in their name and examples of various forms of writing this letter plus its phonetic analogues in other languages. While the object commentary serves a rather denominative purpose, the imagery of the figural initials suggests that the figures in the initials were not simply born of formal fantasies. Many of them were introduced with an edifying purpose that can be confirmed while comparing Istomin’s work with relevant Western artifacts or reading his verses that accompany each letter. Even though his style is extremely florid, the Christian basis of his pedagogical principles is shown very clearly. On the other hand, the ecclesiastical component (e.g. quotes from the Bible or liturgical texts) is almost nonexistent in the book whereas moralizing in the Christian sentiment and instruction in propriety prevail. The secular component is, however, proliferating, and it is represented on the pages of this ABC-book in very diverse and fascinating ways. In other words, this primer provides both instruction and edification while doing it in a playful manner.
Thus this artifact has a transitory nature since it appeared of the threshold of Modern Age when Russia in the 17th century was resolving challenges of a general cultural nature, partly analogous with those during the European Renaissance. This makes its comparison with Western illuminated alphabets of the 15th–16th centuries both justified and useful. The uniqueness of this artifact is enhanced due to the strong personalities of its creators, Karion Istomin and Leonti Bunin, as well as its special status, being a masterpiece created for Tsarevich Alexei.